Bodily changes in pain, hunger, fear, and rage

Transcriber's Note

The List of Illustrations following the "Contents" section has been added by the transcriber; the wording of captions in that List has in some cases been condensed from the captions in the body of the book.

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BODILY CHANGES IN PAIN, HUNGER, FEAR AND RAGE

BODILY CHANGES IN PAIN, HUNGER, FEAR AND RAGE

AN ACCOUNT OF RECENT RESEARCHES INTO THE FUNCTION OF EMOTIONAL EXCITEMENT

BY

WALTER B. CANNON

GEORGE HIGGINSON PROFESSOR OF PHYSIOLOGY IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY

NEW YORK AND LONDON

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY

1915

Copyright, 1915, by

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY

Printed in the United States of America

TO MY COLLABORATORS IN THESE RESEARCHES

DANIEL DE LA PAZ ALFRED T. SHOHL WADE S. WRIGHT ARTHUR L. WASHBURN HENRY LYMAN LEONARD B. NICE CHARLES M. GRUBER HOWARD OSGOOD HORACE GRAY WALTER L. MENDENHALL

WITH PLEASANT MEMORIES OF OUR WORK TOGETHER

PREFACE

Fear, rage and pain, and the pangs of hunger are all primitive experiences which human beings share with the lower animals. These experiences are properly classed as among the most powerful that determine the action of men and beasts. A knowledge of the conditions which attend these experiences, therefore, is of general and fundamental importance in the interpretation of behavior.

During the past four years there has been conducted, in the Harvard Physiological Laboratory, a series of investigations concerned with the bodily changes which occur in conjunction with pain, hunger and the major emotions. A group of remarkable alterations in the bodily economy have been discovered, all of which can reasonably be regarded as responses that are nicely adapted to the individual’s welfare and preservation. Because these physiological adaptations are interesting both in themselves and in their interpretation, not only to physiologists and psychologists, but to others as well, it has seemed worth while to gather together in convenient form the original accounts of the experiments, which have been published in various American medical and physiological journals. I have, however, attempted to arrange the results and discussions in an orderly and consecutive manner, and I have tried also to eliminate or incidentally to explain the technical terms, so that the exposition will be easily understood by any intelligent reader even though not trained in the medical sciences.

My first interest in the conditions attending pain, hunger and strong emotional states was stimulated during the course of a previous series of researches on the motor activities of the alimentary canal. A summary of these researches appeared in 1911, under the title, “The Mechanical Factors of Digestion.” The studies recorded in the present volume may be regarded as a natural sequence of observations on the influence of emotional states on the digestive process, which were reported in that volume.

W. B. Cannon.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

PAGES THE EFFECT OF THE EMOTIONS ON DIGESTION

Emotions favorable to normal secretion of the digestive juices--Emotions unfavorable to normal secretion of the digestive juices--Emotions favorable and unfavorable to contractions of the stomach and intestines--The disturbing effect of pain on digestion 1-21

CHAPTER II

THE GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF THE VISCERAL NERVES CONCERNED IN EMOTIONS

The outlying neurones--The three divisions of the outlying neurones--The extensive distribution of neurones of the “sympathetic” or thoracico-lumbar division and their arrangement for diffuse action--The arrangement of neurones of the cranial and sacral divisions for specific action--The cranial division a conserver of bodily resources--The sacral division a group of mechanisms for emptying--The sympathetic division antagonistic to both the cranial and the sacral--Neurones of the sympathetic division and adrenal secretion have the same action 22-39

CHAPTER III

METHODS OF DEMONSTRATING ADRENAL SECRETION AND ITS NERVOUS CONTROL

The evidence that splanchnic stimulation induces adrenal secretion--The question of adrenal secretion in emotional excitement--The method of securing blood from near the adrenal veins--The method of testing the blood for adrenin 40-51

CHAPTER IV

ADRENAL SECRETION IN STRONG EMOTIONS AND PAIN

The evidence that adrenal secretion is increased in emotional excitement--The evidence that adrenal secretion is increased by “painful” stimulation--Confirmation of our results by other observers 52-65

CHAPTER V

THE INCREASE OF BLOOD SUGAR IN PAIN AND GREAT EMOTION

Glycosuria from pain--Emotional glycosuria--The rôle of the adrenal glands in emotional glycosuria 66-80

CHAPTER VI

IMPROVED CONTRACTION OF FATIGUED MUSCLE AFTER SPLANCHNIC STIMULATION OF THE ADRENAL GLAND

The nerve-muscle preparation--The splanchnic preparation--The effects of splanchnic stimulation on the contraction of fatigued muscle--The first rise in the muscle record--The prolonged rise in the muscle record--The two factors: arterial pressure and adrenal secretion 81-94

CHAPTER VII

THE EFFECTS ON CONTRACTION OF FATIGUED MUSCLE OF VARYING THE ARTERIAL BLOOD PRESSURE

The effect of increasing arterial pressure--The effect of decreasing arterial pressure--An explanation of the effects of varying the arterial pressure--The value of increased arterial pressure in pain and strong emotion 95-109

CHAPTER VIII

THE SPECIFIC RÔLE OF ADRENIN IN COUNTERACTING THE EFFECTS OF FATIGUE

Variations of the threshold stimulus as a measure of irritability--The method of determining the threshold stimulus--The lessening of neuro-muscular irritability by fatigue--The slow restoration of fatigued muscle to normal irritability by rest--The quick restoration of fatigued muscle to normal irritability by adrenin--The evidence that the restorative action of adrenin is specific--The point of action of adrenin in muscle 110-134

CHAPTER IX

THE HASTENING OF THE COAGULATION OF BLOOD BY ADRENIN

The graphic method of measuring the coagulation time--The effects of subcutaneous injections of adrenin--The effects of intravenous injections--The hastening of coagulation by adrenin not a direct effect on the blood 135-160

CHAPTER X

THE HASTENING OF COAGULATION OF BLOOD IN PAIN AND GREAT EMOTION

Coagulation hastened by splanchnic stimulation--Coagulation not hastened by splanchnic stimulation if the adrenal glands are absent--Coagulation hastened by “painful” stimulation--Coagulation hastened in emotional excitement 161-183

CHAPTER XI

THE UTILITY OF THE BODILY CHANGES IN PAIN AND GREAT EMOTION

The reflex nature of bodily responses in pain and the major emotions, and the useful character of reflexes--The utility of the increased blood sugar as a source of muscular energy--The utility of increased adrenin in the blood as an antidote to the effects of fatigue--The question whether adrenin normally secreted inhibits the use of sugar in the body--The vascular changes produced by adrenin favorable to supreme muscular exertion--The changes in respiratory function also favorable to great effort--The effects produced in asphyxia similar to those produced in pain and excitement--The utility of rapid coagulation in preventing loss of blood 184-214

CHAPTER XII

THE ENERGIZING INFLUENCE OF EMOTIONAL EXCITEMENT

“Reservoirs of power”--The excitements and energies of competitive sports--Frenzy and endurance in ceremonial and other dances--The fierce emotions and struggles of battle--The stimulating influence of witnesses and of music--The feeling of power 215-231

CHAPTER XIII

THE NATURE OF HUNGER

Appetite and hunger--The sensation of hunger--The theory that hunger is a general sensation--Weakness of the assumptions underlying the theory that hunger is a general sensation--Body need may exist without hunger--The theory that hunger is of general origin does not explain the quick onset and the periodicity of the sensation--The theory that hunger is of general origin does not explain the local reference--Hunger not due to emptiness of the stomach--Hunger not due to hydrochloric acid in the empty stomach--Hunger not due to turgescence of the gastric mucous membrane--Hunger the result of contractions--The “empty” stomach and intestines contract--Observations suggesting that contractions cause hunger--The concomitance of contractions and hunger in man 232-266

CHAPTER XIV

THE INTERRELATIONS OF EMOTIONS

Antagonism between emotions expressed in the sympathetic and in the cranial divisions of the autonomic system--Antagonism between emotions expressed in the sympathetic and in the sacral divisions of the autonomic system--The function of hunger--The similarity of visceral effects in different strong emotions and suggestions as to its psychological significance 267-284

CHAPTER XV

ALTERNATIVE SATISFACTIONS FOR THE FIGHTING EMOTIONS

Support for the militarist estimate of the strength of the fighting emotions and instincts--Growing opposition to the fighting emotions and instincts as displayed in war--The desirability of preserving the martial virtues--Moral substitutes for warfare--Physical substitutes for warfare--The significance of international athletic competitions